Chapter 1
Chapter
1 is Walton’s introduction to the discussion concerning the congruence of the Old
Testament with the world surrounding it. This chapter discusses the history,
methodology, and reasoning behind comparative Old Testament studies. It then
concludes with the principles and goals each student should possess as he or
she studies the Old Testament.
His
synopsis of comparative Old Testament studies begins with the resurgence of
Egyptian and Mesopotamian archaeological studies during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries.[1] He
then moves on to discuss the impact of Friedrich Delitzsch’s lectures
concerning how the writers of the Old Testament borrowed from extrabiblical
sources set the stage for many secular ideologies removing the special
revelation aspect from the Bible. This allowed two things to take place. First,
it brought out the comparative study of the Bible into a critical realm; and
second, it made Assyriology, Egyptology, and Hittitology serious academic
disciplines which have greatly enhanced modern man’s understanding of these
ancient cultures.
While
Walton discusses several forms of Old Testament study, his opinion favors
comparative studies. He starts with explaining the reasoning for sound
methodological comparative study and moves on to answer the “why” it should be
performed over other studies. In his view, it expands the student’s
understanding of four culturally significant areas: language and literature, literary
genre, religious practice, and theology. His conclusion provides ten specific principles
which, in his opinion are the foundational matters of comparative studies. He ends
this chapter with four goals for each student in order to have a cognitive
foundation for understanding the conceptual world of the Old Testament.
Chapter 2
Walton
discusses the relationship between comparative studies, theology, and critical
and confessional academic scholarship. His discussion includes both the reasons
for the study, the resistance and challenges to two styles of academic study,
as well as the polemical usage of by each of the studies. Walton concludes the
chapter by offering a preferred model, the integrated role in Old Testament
studies.
Critical scholarship, according to Walton, contains
its own unique presupposition of the foundation of the Bible as understood
through literary and source criticism. Comparative studies do not negate these
critical approaches; however, it is “capable of offering some correctives to
some of the assumptions and conclusions of source theory.”[2] Some
critical scholars use comparative studies as a polemic to argue against the
reality of the Old Testament. However, some critical scholars refuse to use
comparative studies because of the questions it brings to the table.
Confessional
scholars are even more hesitant to conduct comparative studies because the
common conclusion understood by many comparative studies scholars was apparent
similarity between the Old Testament and other Ancient Near Eastern writings.
However, there are some confessional scholars who willingly accept and
polemically use comparative studies in order to defend the antiquity of the Old
Testament.
After
concisely explaining these two stands concerning comparative studies, Walton
seeks to offer a third model: the integrated role. This application contains
three key areas that seek to apply comparative studies in a logical and accurate
sense: critical analysis of the data without presupposition, defense of the
biblical text, and a proper exegesis of the biblical text.
Chapter 3
Walton
summarizes the genres of Ancient Near Eastern literature in this chapter. He lists fifteen specific types of genre as
well as a miscellaneous section within the Ancient Near Eastern culture. Each
genre includes specific examples from Ancient Near Eastern archaeological sites;
however, not all of the genres include definitions explaining their reason and
use.
The
list of genres include: myths designed to use the past to explain the present;
literary texts and epics containing heroic actions of man in support of or
against the gods; ritual texts record the procedure and other requirements of a
ritual, divination or incantation texts; personal letters and international
correspondence; royal inscriptions of kings and their actions; annals and
chronicles recording lists of kings, battles fought, favors of the gods during
a cycle; treaties recording the relationship between international parties; civil
and criminal law collections; legal documents such as contracts, wills, and
court records; hymns and prayers to the gods; wisdom literature including
proverbs, instructions, and philosophical treatises; prophecy given to a king; propagandistic
fictional autobiography and apocalyptic literature designed to garner a
reaction; archives from public buildings of major cities; and a miscellaneous
section containing liturgical writings, love poems, as well as lamentations.
The
list of cultures include: Egyptian, Akkadian, Hittite, Sumerian, Persian,
Levant (Aramaean, Phoenician, and Moabite), as well as major city states such
as Ugarit, Ebla, and others of the third millennium BC. While this section is
not exhaustive under some of the specific genres, it is explanative and provides
clear examples designed to give the reader a basic understanding of the overall
Ancient Near Eastern literary scene. These lists do not include Israel, or any
of their writings. Yet, as one reads
through this section, one realizes that similar genres are found within the Old
Testament, a fact that is not lost on the reader.
Chapter 4
The
goal of chapter four is to introduce the reader to the religion of the Ancient
Near East. Walton points out that all gods of Mesopotamia and Egypt had some
form of a beginning. Beyond that, there is an understanding and teaching that
these gods had familial relationships. These gods and their relationships came
into existence when a need or function was realized that required a deity’s
attention. While there is no origin of Yahweh, Walton sees a number of
similarities in the ontological comparison between Israelite and Mesopotamian
religion. The second comparison comes in
a discussion concerning the name Yahweh
itself, and while there are some similarities, the point of separation
is most inimitable, Yahweh was transcending into the lives of Abraham’s
descendants in order to form a unique relationship.
Within
the divine assembly, if a god was not needed for an extended period of time,
that god would cease to be recognized and worshipped until that need came back
to the forefront. Decisions were not made by a singular deity, but by the
pantheon together in a divine council. Walton compares Ugarit’s understanding
of the ancient form of polytheistic council with that of Yahweh’s council in
that both are made up of lesser beings who give guidance to a higher deity. The
issue is that Yahweh is recognized as the sole deity, which separates it from
every other religion of the Ancient Near East. Furthermore, each of the gods
were placed within the cosmos based on their function and through the medium
they acted.
Walton examines
the human and divine attributes of the gods. These gods have personalities and
needs which are human in nature and require assistance in meeting those needs.
Beyond that, the gods function as humans do, including procreation, jealousy,
fallibility, unjust, anger, and incompetence to name a few. Walton contrasts
this with Israel’s unique view of Yahweh in the final comparative studies
section of this chapter.
Chapter 5
Walton moves on to
discuss the temple and ritual within Ancient Near Eastern religions and the
comparative analysis within Israelite religion. This chapter includes two
excurses, one that deals with polytheistic iconism and the other dealing with
ziggurats, concluding with the understanding of clear similarity within several
aspects of Israelite and Mesopotamian religion.
The temple in the
Ancient Near East was considered the domicile of the gods. It was built to
resemble the realm the god occupied within the polytheistic religion. The name
of the temple itself carried importance, much the same as the naming of the
god; it identified function as well as existence. The temple must be accepted
by the god who it was built for; and the same is theoretically true for the
icon as well. These rituals not only sanctified the temple/icon, but it also
cleansed it from human corruption. It is here that Walton conducts a
comparative study demonstrating the unique approach the biblical prophets took
when parodying pagan practices.
Sacred space was
another theological understanding within the polytheistic religion. This began
with the location of the temple that was deemed suitable for deific habitation
by oracle. This included the temple, the ziggurat, and a garden for the deity
to reside. Walton explains the Tower of Babel story in Genesis 11 based on his
understanding of sacred space; the ultimate goal was to establish a part of
heaven upon the earth. This is again due to the fact that the temple was a
micro-cosmos of the deity’s true realm. Egyptian temples went so far as to
contain a representation of the primeval hill from whence all creation came.
Walton sees the Garden of Eden as the sacred space God set aside to meet man
and provide for his needs. This is why the temple remained so significant to
the ancient world; it met the needs of the god, which maintained a cycle of
continuity within the realm of humanity, hence the reason for specific ritual
actions.
Chapter 6
Within ancient
Mesopotamia, there were two religious institutions: the state religion, and the
family religion. Each of these religions was paramount to understanding and
fulfilling the needs of the gods in order to ensure a harmonious cycle on the
earth. Understanding these two religious ideologies, Walton identifies some
similarities within the state Yahweh worship of Israel, as well as the family
religion of Abraham.
The state religion
sought to understand the god through three avenues: the needs of the god, the
jobs of the gods, and the whims of the gods. In order to appease the needs of
the god, they were treated much the same as a king. If issues arose, an oracle
or divination was used to ascertain the problem and determine a solution. The
primary job of the god was to maintain justice via the king who was the god’s
spokesperson and enforcer. The whims of the gods fluctuated, and angering a god
was quite easy. However, understanding the source of the anger required a
reading of omens and circumstances. This included personal as well as political
sins against the gods. “Common folks counted on the king and priests to
maintain the favor of the god at this corporate level.”[3]
The family religion
sought to appease the ancestral and familial gods who would hear their requests
and meet their needs. These gods were not usually the state gods, but lesser
deities in the religious hierarchy. This explains the role of prayer and
outward acts of piety within ancient Mesopotamia. While there are some
similarities between Israel and Mesopotamian religion, several issues arise,
namely the understanding of the soul (ka/ba vs. nephesh) as well as an
internally personal system of practical righteous knowledge apart from merely
pleasing the god.
Chapter 7
Understanding
cosmic geography is paramount to understanding the worldview of the Ancient
Near East. It was their way of understanding how things operated beyond the
mere day to day aspect. It compares and contrasts function versus structure in
both the physical and metaphysical realm.
The first function
and structure discussed concerns the realm of the heavens, including the sky,
the weather and waters above, and the celestial bodies. Walton identifies the boundary
between heaven and earth as the sky. The main function of the sky was to keep
the waters above from crashing down upon the earth. The similarity between
Israelite and Ancient Near Eastern religion is that all seem to hold that the
sky is made up of some tangible material. The weather and waters above the sky
is used to explain precipitation and weather phenomena. The contrast between
Israelite and other religions is that Israel uses the term “windows” that open
for rain, not for celestial bodies to enter into the earth’s realm. The
celestial bodies are the sun, moon, stars, and planets that make up the solar
system. The function of the sun was both symbolic of life and death, as well as
physical in giving off heat and light. The moon’s function was identified by
the lunar cycle and its’ effects upon nature.
The structure of
the earth includes five concepts: political ethnocentrism, cosmic location of
terrestrial features surrounding the earth, topographical understanding of the
boundaries of the earth, theologically lacking, and the cosmic sea as well as
the waters under the earth that function for both creation and destruction.
The final
structure discussed is the netherworld. Walton contrasts Egyptian mythology
with the rest of the Ancient Near East. For Mesopotamia, the entry to the
underworld was through the grave; whereas it was entered through the western
horizon (the setting sun).
Chapter 8
Cosmology and cosmogony
attempt to explain not only the creation of material, but what constitution the
existence of that material in creation. The focus was not on what was physical,
but that which was metaphysical, the function existing behind the substance.
Succinctly, Walton
discusses the terminology used for creating something. He compares the Akkadian
words “banu” and “basamu” with the Hebrew word “bara”. According to Walton,
bara is used by the Israelites in reference to God creating order and function,
not necessarily the ex nihilo aspect that is theologically taught by some today,
which is similar to the Ancient Near Eastern understanding of creation. Creation
gives unordered material function; and from the sea comes land and life. From here,
Walton discusses the ontological reasoning for creating an object, as well as
what existed before creation, namely Chaos and Order. Walton identifies this as
the pre-cosmic condition of the universe, whether it is a primordial sea, the
dead body of a god, or an unordered existence of material which had no
function. Walton sees this in Genesis 1:2 (tohu wabohu), in that order came
from chaotic material.
The naming,
separation, and role involved in creation plays a key part in explaining its’
need for existence and functional aspect. Furthermore, it defines the control
attributes as well as the destinies that were administered by the gods, which
not only caused original creation but it maintains the creative renewal cycle
as well. This maintenance is carried out in the temple, which is the
microcosmic picture of the cosmos. The junction between the physical and metaphysical
is the divine rest. When order and function are maintained, the god can rest
and enjoy the cycle of life within the temple. Walton compares this
understanding of rest with Genesis 1-2 when God rested on the seventh day of
creation. Furthermore, Eden was God’s temple, which allowed Him to rest on the
earth while order and function were being maintained
Chapter 9
This
chapter is divided into two sections. The first section deals with how the
Ancient Near East understood the origin and role of humanity. The second
section seeks to ascertain how the Ancient Near East comprehended and wrote
about history. Walton’s desire is gain a greater understanding of the cognitive
environment held by the Ancient Near East.
Walton
compares and contrasts ten Ancient Near Eastern origin texts of man: Egyptian,
Sumerian, and Akkadian. The Akkadian texts are the only ones that place human
origins within the conflict of their gods; however, similarly, the overall
focus is on the function of man as well as the materials or process used in the
creation. The Israelite creation account is wrought with differences when
compared to other creation accounts. For example, Israel’s account is
monogenetic, meaning from one pair (Adam and Eve), versus a polygenetic
collective.
The
understanding of what humans were made of is even more varied. Two Sumerian
views speak of humans springing forth from the ground; Egyptian motifs describe
humans being molded as clay on the potter’s wheel; and Akkadian accounts
describe humans being fashioned from the dead body of a god. Israel’s view
carries a few similarities as well as some major differences. Dirt and breath
are the two ingredients in Genesis; and while clay is made from dirt, it is not
the same consistency nor does it have similar function.
The same is true
for the overall makeup of humanity concerning the soul and spirit. The Egyptian
understanding of the soul and spirit are based on the afterlife; Mesopotamian
views are based on their understanding of human origin; whereas the Israelite
understanding is based on their relationship to God. This explains the
understanding of humanity’s role: Egyptian theology has no explanation; humans
were created to work as slaves for the gods in Sumerian and Akkadian theology;
humans were created to worship God in Israelite mentality.
Chapter 10
The historiography of the written past is
found in many different genres throughout the Ancient Near East. These records,
and the genres they are written in, are paramount to understanding the values
that culture applied to the written record. This chapter discusses the genres,
the role of deity in the historiography, how time and history are perceived,
and the poetics of historiography.
There
are numerous genres within Mesopotamian literature that pertain to
historiography. These genres include two overarching categories: commemorative
records that consist of annals, building accounts, and royal inscriptions which
focused on a particular king; and chronographic records which contain the
records of past kings and vary from lists to narratives. [4]
Furthermore, these genres show a great interest in the workings done towards
deity. This explains the focus on recurrence and endurance, whether it is
through a genealogy of kings or the seasons of the weather. Regardless of the
subject, historiography always contains a subject. The value of historiography
is within a three-fold identity: 1) the sponsor, 2) who or what that is being
promoted, and 3) the targeted audience.
At
this point, Walton compares Israelite historiography with that of the Ancient
Near East. While there are a few similarities of genre, the vast majority is
narrative in form and even then it varies greatly. Israel does similarly hold
to the fact that God is the cause of all that happens, which is why Israel was
so interested in the result and not necessarily the experience. The sponsorship
within Israelite writing is not as clear as that of Mesopotamian origins, nor
is the value the same; Israel’s value was the legitimation of God’s covenant to
them as a chosen people, not a legitimation of the king.
Chapter 11
With
the close of last chapter, Walton begins to discuss the Ancient Near Eastern
view of the present. In this chapter, Walton focuses on the usage and
interpretation of divinations and omens. The goal here is to discuss the
epistemology and the practical application by magicians and other religious
practitioners.
Walton
discusses two categories of divination, inspired and deductive. Inspired
divination concerns prophecy, both official and informal, and dreams. Walton
points out that prophecy generally focused primarily on the king. The function
of the prophet was to advise the king of what would be favorable to the god who
had spoken. Dreams varied from spontaneity to one who actively sought out a
god. Deductive divination comes through two types of events that can be
observed in the physical realm, the active such as extispicy or casting of
lots, and the unprovoked such as lunar eclipses, weather, terrestrial omens,
and physiognomic omens.
There
are four types of practitioners recorded by Walton. The banu or haruspex
interprets the entrails of animals. The tupsarru or celestial interpreters look
to astrology for example as a means of language from the god. Muhhu or ecstatic
prophets utter messages once they have become possessed. The apilu or
consultants actively seek out a response from a god concerning a specific
question.
Magic,
according to Walton, must be included within the religious realm of the Ancient
Near East. Magic is used as an example of power; whereas divination is always
used to gain knowledge or understanding. “Resolution is often sought by means
of incantations, which consist of oral rituals, usually performed in
association with manual rituals to accomplish protection, elimination, or
imposition of evil spells.”[5]
Chapter 12
This
chapter discusses the relationship of the city and the kingship within the
social construct of the Ancient Near East. The city is viewed as three unique
aspects: the city whose existence was primordial; the identity and relationship
of the city to the state and the cosmos; and the sacred identity between the
patron gods, the temples as their place of rest, and the cities or sacred
places which housed and maintained the temple or shrine.
The
king himself was viewed as a mediator between the city/state deity and the
populace under his realm. It was his control that helped maintain order and
discipline on earth, just as his deity maintained order and control within the
cosmos. There are four common denominators within the writings concerning the
king. The first is the origin of the king; while through Mesopotamian theology,
the king is a gift from the gods, in Israelite theology, God begrudgingly gives
them a king after they demand one from Him. The second is the king’s concern
with the discernment of divine will and the enablement of it. The third
commonality concerns the king’s rule through divine sponsorship. The fourth is
his responsibility towards justice. The task delegated to him by the gods
foremost was the vulnerable were to be protected under his rule.
According
to Walton, there are numerous similarities between Israelite kingship and those
of Mesopotamian and Egyptian kingdoms. Both viewed their king as the mediator
of their deity’s will. Furthermore, the king relegates the authority bestowed
upon him. The responsibility of justice and the accountability of kingship are
found throughout the Ancient Near East. However, there are some clear
differences. The king does not have a divine origin, and the negative
assessment of Israelites kings occurs exponentially more often than in other
cultures. The Israelite king, unlike his Mesopotamian counterpart, does not sit
between the divine and human realms, he is only within the human realm.
Chapter 13
Walton shifts from discussing the ruling party
to the laws and treatises themselves in the Ancient Near East and how they were
understood. Walton discusses several forms of available literature, pointing
out that all of them are written or recorded from an institutional
understanding and application. He then shifts to discuss the wisdom literature
and how it was understood and applied within society.
Walton,
agreeing with Bottero, agrees that the term “code” is an improper title and
applies the term “treatise” instead. He then lists six major treatises known
today: Ur-Nammu, Lipit-Ishtar, Eshnunna, Hammurabi, Middle Assyrian, and
Hittite, with a few fragments of others in existence. Each of these treatises
includes various legal remedies in order to restore continuum: physical
punishment; financial settlement, penalty, or restitution; ordeal or oath; or a
judicial decision. In this regard, Walton compares the biblical book of
Deuteronomy and sees several similarities. A key feature is that for the
Mesopotamian codes and treatises, they are not laws with prescribed punishments,
but rather verdicts that set an example in order to garner a fair punishment.
Walton’s
discussion of wisdom literature is included here because, “the instructions of
Egypt and the proverbs of Mesopotamia stand as further examples of the idea that
wisdom compilations were used widely in the ancient world as a means of
offering principles could serve as
guides for living.”[6] Walton compares this idea
to the book of Proverbs; ultimately coming to the conclusion that while there
may have been some borrowing, Israel attributed the instruction of Proverbs to
Yahweh. Ultimately, the difference between Israelite and other Ancient Near
Eastern ideologies lies in the orientation of the person, Yahweh, and the law.
Chapter 14
Walton’s last
chapter discusses the future of man both upon the earth as well as after death.
At the personal level, leaving a proud and enduring legacy was paramount to
ensuring the future family’s success. In the majority of Mesopotamian writings,
a goal of society’s future was maintaining order and continuity, not utopia. Contrastingly,
Israel held an apocryphal tradition that is clearly unique within the Ancient
Near East.
Egypt was clearly
more interested and more focused on path of the soul after death. There are
four major Egyptian texts devoted to the afterlife: the Egyptian Book of the
Dead, the Coffin Texts, the Pyramid Texts, and the Books of the Netherworld. In
the Mesopotamian book, the Epic of Atrahasis, creation of mortal life and the
afterlife both are recorded. While Egyptian literature lacks the discussion of
the origin of the mortality of humans, their ontological understanding is
linked to the inner human, much the same as Mesopotamia and the Levant. The
geography and nature of the underworld reflect a horizontal aspect in both
Egyptian and Sumerian thought; however, a vertical understanding soon became
the norm for many ancient societies. Walton compares the Israelite view of
Sheol in this discussion. Ultimately, Sheol is unique in its’ cognitive
resonance within Israel.
While eternal hope
was not always believed to exist by Mesopotamian cultures, several things stood
out, namely the conditions of the afterlife (reward or punishment) and the
methods to achieve or improve these conditions. Egypt was unique in that the worst
possibility was for one to be destroyed after death. The overall consensus was
that one would achieve an eternal rest without complication. The first step in
achieving this was a proper burial and ceremony. Israel again demonstrated a
unique understanding of the afterlife. Funeral ceremonies did not occur.
Furthermore, redemption from Sheol was paramount to salvation of the soul in
the afterlife.
Postscript and
Appendix
Walton’s postscript contains a restatement
of his goal and a summarization of what was discussed in the previous fourteen
chapters. His overall intent sees some foundational similarities within basic
homogeneity. The differences that have been discussed are the result of a
number of factors, specifically geographical separation, sociopolitical
developments, and the driving force that is unique to each culture.
While some ideas may have been borrowed, the
common cognitive environment was not. This is unique to the culture which it
came out of. These similarities and differences were discussed on six levels. The
ontological level maintained a high level of similarity; the epistemological
level of Israel was unique in that God had spoken to them; the anthropological
level understood the divine origin of humanity, whether through polygenetic or
monogenetic origins; the historiographical level similarly was unique in
Israel, focusing on the covenant not the king; the sociological level contained
both similarity and distinction within Israel when compared to the surrounding
Ancient Near East; and the theological level in which Israel expressed numerous
unique beliefs. With a proper understanding of these levels, proper
interpretation and application of the Old Testament guard against an
eisegetical understanding and application.
Walton’s appendix includes a list of individual gods listed by
geography: Mesopotamia (Anu, Enlil, Ea, Shemash, Ishtar, Nergal, Ninurta, and
Marduk), Canaanite (El, Baal/Hadad, Dagan, Asherah, and Anat), Egyptian
(Amun-Re, Osiris, Isis, Horus, Seth, Thoth, Aten, and Ptah), Moab (Kemosh), and
Israel (Yahweh). A total of twenty-three
gods are listed in this appendix. This list is not exhaustive, and one who
reads the Old Testament will notice some that are not present, such as Moloch
for example.
No comments:
Post a Comment